Difference between revisions of "Expand School-Based Prevention Programs"

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= Introductory Paragraph =
= Introductory Paragraph =


Schools are in a unique position of having the ability to systematically reach a large portion of youth at all stages of development from preschool to late adolescence. Because attending school is a major part of a young person’s life, schools are positioned to serve as a leading protective factor from the adverse effects of substance use, misuse and abuse by choosing curriculum inclusion of universal school-based prevention programming, a comprehensive public health approach.
With fatal drug overdoses reaching the highest levels recorded in history, more and more schools are recognizing that students' overall health and wellbeing are of paramount importance as children are often the silent victims of the addiction disease which knows no boundaries. Schools are in a unique position of having the ability to systematically reach a large portion of youth at all stages of development from preschool to late adolescence. Because attending school is a major part of a young person’s life, schools can serve as a leading protective factor from the adverse effects of substance use, misuse, and abuse.  


School-based substance use prevention programs that focus on broad-based skill building (e.g., psychosocial development, life-skills development, and social-emotional learning and connectedness) have greater promise than substance-specific programs <ref>Griffin KW, Botvin GJ. Evidence-based interventions for preventing substance use disorders in adolescents. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 2010;19:505–26. CrossRefexternal icon PubMedexternal iconFaggiano F, Minozzi S, Versino E, Buscemi D. Universal school-based prevention for illicit drug use. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014;12:CD003020. CrossRefexternal icon PubMedexternal icon</ref>. The school campus provides a learning environment and an opportunity to provide education on lifelong healthy skill and behavior development. With fatal drug overdoses reaching the highest levels recorded in history, more and more schools are recognizing that students' overall health and wellbeing are of paramount importance as children are often the silent victims of the addiction disease which knows no boundaries. 
The school campus provides a learning environment and an opportunity to provide education on lifelong healthy skill and behavior development. Choosing curricula which reach all students aligns to a public health approach. School-based prevention programs which focus on broad-based skill building (e.g., psychosocial development, life-skills development, and social-emotional learning, and connectedness) have greater promise than substance-specific programs. <ref>Griffin KW, Botvin GJ. Evidence-based interventions for preventing substance use disorders in adolescents. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 2010;19:505–26. CrossRefexternal icon PubMedexternal iconFaggiano F, Minozzi S, Versino E, Buscemi D. Universal school-based prevention for illicit drug use. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014;12:CD003020. CrossRefexternal icon PubMedexternal icon</ref>  


Research shows that school health programs reduce the prevalence of health risk behaviors among youth and have a positive effect on academic performance <ref>Murray NG, Low BJ, Hollis C, Cross AW, Davis SM. Coordinated school health programs and academic achievement: A systematic review of the literatureexternal icon. J Sch Health 2007;77:589-600</ref>. Preventing the onset of substance use during the critical years of youth development can have positive lifelong results. Therefore, in addition to providing quality education and social learning environments, schools are taking a proactive health approach with a keen focus on substance prevention.   
Research shows that school health programs reduce the prevalence of health risk behaviors among youth and have a positive effect on academic performance. <ref>Murray NG, Low BJ, Hollis C, Cross AW, Davis SM. Coordinated school health programs and academic achievement: A systematic review of the literature. J Sch Health 2007;77:589-600</ref> Preventing the onset of substance use during the critical years of youth development can have positive lifelong results. Therefore, in addition to providing quality education and social learning environments, schools are taking a proactive health approach with a keen focus on substance prevention. Research has shown that young people who feel connected to their school are less likely to engage in many risk behaviors, including early sexual initiation, alcohol, tobacco, and other drug use, as well as violence and gang involvement. Students who feel connected to their school are also more likely to have better academic achievement, including higher grades and test scores, have better school attendance, and stay in school longer. <ref>https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/protective/school_connectedness.htm</ref>  


Additionally, research has shown that young people who feel connected to their school are less likely to engage in many risk behaviors, including early sexual initiation, alcohol, tobacco, and other drug use, and violence and gang involvement. Students who feel connected to their school are also more likely to have better academic achievement, including higher grades and test scores, have better school attendance, and stay in school longer <ref>https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/protective/school_connectedness.htm</ref>. 
There is a vast offering of school-based prevention programs that can enhance and create a whole school approach to youth development which can serve to prevent substance use before it starts. Such a proactive upstream strategy is needed to prevent the devastating consequences of substance use.
 
There is a vast offering of school-based prevention programs that can enhance and create a whole school approach to youth development that can serve to prevent substance use before it starts; a proactive upstream solution to the devasting consequences that can present with substance use, misuse and abuse.


= Key Information =
= Key Information =


Percentage of adolescents reporting drug use decreased significantly in 2021 as the COVID-19 pandemic endured according to 2021 Monitoring the Future survey <ref>https://www.drugabuse.gov/drug-topics/trends-statistics/monitoring-future</ref>.  
Behaviors established during adolescence often continue into adulthood, and young people’s experiences during this critical time have long-lasting impacts on their future health and well-being. The Center for Disease Control has established an evidence-based approach to school-based HIV and STD prevention. These evidence-based strategies benefit all students. Further, activities related to health education can be tailored to address health outcomes other than sexual behaviors, including high-risk substance use, violence, and mental health. Promoting safe and supportive environments, which includes increasing school connectedness and engaging parents, can impact all of these health outcomes. Schools, families, and communities can work together to provide more intentional messages, skills, and mental health support for adolescents so that encouraging trends can continue and troubling trends can be reversed. <ref>https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/data/yrbs/pdf/YRBSDataSummaryTrendsReport2019-508.pdf</ref> Most kids believe that a majority of students use substances when, in reality, only a very small percentage does. Changing social norms of a school by educating students on the reality of substance use leads to a changed perspective of drug use as deviant rather than something that "everyone is doing."


'''The Monitoring the Future''' survey is given annually to students in 8th, 10th, and 12th grades who self-report their substance use behaviors over various time periods, such as past 30 days, past 12 months, and lifetime. The survey also documents students’ perception of harm, disapproval of use, and perceived availability of drugs. The survey results are released the same year the data are collected. From February through June 2021, the Monitoring the Future investigators collected 32,260 surveys from students enrolled across 319 public and private schools in the United States.
'''What Is a Drug Prevention Program?'''
The most effective prevention programs require a commitment of time, priority standing (curriculum inclusion), and are recurring and consistent.  Prevention is NOT as simple as just showing up once and telling individuals to “Just Say No.” As with drug treatment, a “one-size-fits-all” approach to drug prevention is not effective. Many of the most common strategies being used by well-meaning parents, schools, and communities have been shown by careful research to be ineffective. Some have even caused harm by unintentionally reinforcing pro-use attitudes, behaviors, or norms. Knowing what works in prevention, and what doesn’t, is vital to keeping young people from developing serious and life-long issues with addiction, as alcohol and other drug abuse remain the problem behaviors contributing to the most serious problems facing our communities today.  


“The Biden-Harris Administration is committed to using data and evidence to guide our prevention efforts so it is important to identify all the factors that may have led to this decrease in substance use to better inform prevention strategies moving forward,” said Dr. Rahul Gupta, Director of the White House Office of National Drug Control Policy. “The Administration is investing historic levels of funding for evidence-based prevention programs because delaying substance use until after adolescence significantly reduces the likelihood of developing a substance use disorder.”
Features of the highest quality and most effective drug prevention programs are listed below:  
Reported declines in the use of substances among teens include:
• Alcohol: The percentage of students who reported using alcohol within the past year decreased significantly for 10th and 12th grade students and remained stable for eighth-graders.
o Eighth graders: 17.2% reported using alcohol in the past year in 2021, remaining steady compared to 20.5% in 2020 (not a statistically significant decrease)
o 10th graders: 28.5% reported using alcohol in the past year in 2021, a statistically significant decrease from 40.7% in 2020
o 12th graders: 46.5% reported using alcohol in the past year in 2021, a statistically significant decrease from 55.3% in 2020
• Marijuana: The percentage of students who reported using marijuana (in all forms, including smoking and vaping) within the past year decreased significantly for eighth, 10th, and 12th grade students.
o Eighth graders: 7.1% reported using marijuana in the past year in 2021, compared to 11.4% in 2020
o 10th graders: 17.3% reported using marijuana in the past year in 2021, compared to 28.0% in 2020
o 12th graders: 30.5% reported using marijuana in the past year in 2021, compared to 35.2% in 2020
• Vaping nicotine: Vaping continues to be the predominant method of nicotine consumption among young people, though the percentage of students who reported vaping nicotine within the past year decreased significantly for eighth, 10th, and 12th grade students.
o Eighth graders: 12.1% reported vaping nicotine in the past year in 2021, compared to 16.6% in 2020
o 10th graders: 19.5% reported vaping nicotine in the past year in 2021, compared to 30.7% in 2020
o 12th graders: 26.6% reported vaping nicotine in the past year in 2021, compared to 34.5% in 2020
• Any illicit drug, other than marijuana:  The percentage of students who reported using any illicit drug (other than marijuana) within the past year decreased significantly for eighth, 10th, and 12th grade students.
o Eighth graders: 4.6% reported using any illicit drug (other than marijuana) in the past year in 2021, compared to 7.7% in 2020
o 10th graders: 5.1% reported using any illicit drug (other than marijuana) in the past year in 2021, compared to 8.6% in 2020
o 12th graders: 7.2% reported using any illicit drug (other than marijuana) in the past year in 2021, compared to 11.4% in 2020
• Significant declines in use were also reported across a wide range of drugs for many of the age cohorts, including for cocaine, hallucinogens, and nonmedical use of amphetamines, tranquilizers, and prescription opioids.


“In addition to looking at these significant one-year declines in substance use among young people, the real benefit of the Monitoring the Future survey is our unique ability to track changes over time, and over the course of history,” said Richard A. Miech, Ph.D., lead author of the paper and team lead of the Monitoring the Future study at the University of Michigan. “We knew that this year’s data would illuminate how the COVID-19 pandemic may have impacted substance use among young people, and in the coming years, we will find out whether those impacts are long-lasting as we continue tracking the drug use patterns of these unique cohorts of adolescents.”
* Contains evidence-informed and evidence-based strategy.
* Intentional focus on all substances of use, misuse, and abuse (alcohol, nicotine, marijuana, prescription drugs, illicit drugs, over-the-counter drugs/medications).
* Designed to address problems and their root causes as indicated by local data.
* Reduce risk factors and enhance protective factors.
* Appropriately timed - students receive accurate information and skill development in advance of age of onset of use.
* Delivered by teachers/prevention professionals who have achieved a high level of training in the field of substance prevention, intervention, treatment, and recovery.
* Recurring in nature with follow-up booster lessons at subsequent grade levels.
* Utilizes multiple teaching techniques to engage all students -- behavior rehearsal, interactivity, and open communication.
* Teaches skill development which includes: self-control, emotional awareness, communication, problem-solving, and advanced capacity for learning. 
* Enhances school connectedness with a whole-school approach which includes healthy alternative activities.
* Provides accurate and real-life information that corrects misperceptions versus fabricated scare tactics.
* Enhances family bonding and communication.
* Reinforced at the community sector level (policies, laws, media)
* Inclusive and compassionate, taking into account that some youth will have used and/or have close friends and family members who are actively using, living in recovery, or have passed away from a substance use disorder.


“We have never seen such dramatic decreases in drug use among teens in just a one-year period. These data are unprecedented and highlight one unexpected potential consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic, which caused seismic shifts in the day-to-day lives of adolescents,” said Nora Volkow, M.D., NIDA director. “Moving forward, it will be crucial to identify the pivotal elements of this past year that contributed to decreased drug use – whether related to drug availability, family involvement, differences in peer pressure, or other factors – and harness them to inform future prevention efforts.”
The core goal of prevention programs is the development of lifelong attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors that supports healthy choices and open the door for youth to reach their fullest potential. Specifics include:
* Delaying the onset of substance use
* Decreasing overall substance use
* Reducing the loss of life due to overdose


'''Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS)''' <ref>https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/data/yrbs/feature/index.htm</ref>
'''Types of Prevention Programming.''' Evidence-based programs are structured for three different audiences:
The Center for Disease Control’s YRBS monitors priority health risks and experiences among high school students across the country. The YRBS results help in understanding risks that contribute to the leading causes of death and disability among youth and young adults. The 2019 YRBS results will serve as a baseline for years to come as we understand the impact of COVID and help adolescents recover from the effects, both mental and physical, of the COIVD 19 pandemic.
* Universal curricula provide all students in the school, or within select grade levels, with the substance use information and prevention skills.
* Selective programs target an entire subgroup that has higher risk, regardless of the degree of risk of any individual within the group.
* Indicated curricula prevent the onset of additional substance use in individuals who have used a substance but who do not meet the medical criteria for addiction.


National, state, and local surveys are conducted every 2 years among high school students throughout the United States. More than 13,000 U.S. high school students participated in the 2019 national YRBS. The report includes national YRBS data and data from surveys conducted in 44 states, 28 large urban school districts, 3 territories, and 2 tribal governments.
'''Evidence-Based Drug Prevention Program Registries.''' There are many strategies that have been confirmed by research to show a positive impact on youth choices and healthy behaviors. Meticulous evaluation has proven evidence-based strategies to be effective over time. Registries of evidence-based prevention programming are an invaluable resources in the selection of suitable programs that fit with the local landscape.  


Encouraging findings from 2009-2012 include decreasing prevalence of current alcohol use and decreases in the prevalence of lifetime use of marijuana, cocaine, methamphetamine, heroin, synthetic marijuana, and injection drug use. However, the findings in the report underscore that substance use among high school students remains common, with approximately one in three students reporting current alcohol use, one in five reporting current marijuana use, and one in seven reporting current binge drinking. Because of the ongoing U.S. opioid crisis, of particular concern are the high rates of lifetime (one in seven students) and current prescription opioid misuse (one in 14 students), and high rates of co-occurring substance use among students currently misusing prescription opioids.
It is very important to note that even the best-designed programs can be ineffective if the fidelity of the implementation process or content is added to or subtracted from the scope and sequence.  When researching and making a program selection, careful attention should be given to the fidelity model and the intended design of the program.
There are times when an evidence-based program may not be an option due to readiness, cost, capacity, funding, and/or training barriers. In these cases, locally developed programs are often created. When it comes to substance use prevention, extreme levels of caution must be exercised to ensure that the best intentions do not backfire and actually hinder or even cause harm to the local conditions and people the program was intended to help.


Trend data were available for eight of the 11 substance use measures included in the analyses. Among these measures, current alcohol use, lifetime cocaine, lifetime methamphetamine, lifetime heroin, and lifetime injection drug use decreased during 2009–2019. Lifetime use of synthetic marijuana decreased during 2015–2019. The prevalence of lifetime marijuana use increased during 2009–2013 (36.8%–40.7%) and then decreased during 2013–2019 (40.7%–36.8%). No statistically significant changes from 2017 to 2019 were observed for any of the substance use behaviors.
= Relevant Research=


Other Relevant Data Sources:
Although most youth are in good health, some are at an increased risk for behaviors that can lead to poor health outcomes, such as high-risk substance use. According to national datasets, the prevalence of alcohol, tobacco, and other drug use increases rapidly from early to late adolescence, peaks during the transition to young adulthood, and declines through the remainder of adulthood. There is accumulating evidence showing that the initiation of substance use early in life contributes to higher levels of use and abuse later in life. Early-onset is also associated with a host of later negative health, social, and behavioral outcomes including physical and mental health problems, violent and aggressive behavior, and adjustment problems in the workplace and family. <ref>Newcomb MD, Locke T. Health, social, and psychological consequences of drug use and abuse. In: Sloboda Z, editor. Epidemiology of drug abuse. Springer; New York: 2005. pp. 45–59.</ref> The majority of adults who meet the criteria for having a substance use disorder started using substances during their teen and young adult years. <ref>U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), Office of the Surgeon General, Facing Addiction in America: The Surgeon General’s Report on Alcohol, Drugs, and Health. Washington, DC: HHS, November 2016</ref>
National Center for Drug Abuse Statistics <ref>https://drugabusestatistics.org/teen-drug-use/</ref>
National Survey on Drug Use and Health <ref>https://nsduhweb.rti.org/respweb/homepage.cfm</ref>
National Youth Tobacco Survey <ref>https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/surveys/nyts/index.htm</ref>
State Level Youth Survey’s (ie: Pennsylvania Youth Survey (PAYS), Maryland Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS/YTS), New Jersey, High School Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS), Healthy Kids Colorado Survey (HKCS), Montana, Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS)


'''Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS)''' <ref>https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/data/yrbs/feature/index.htm</ref>
The Center for Disease Control’s YRBS monitors priority health risks and experiences among high school students across the country. The YRBS results help in understanding risks that contribute to the leading causes of death and disability among youth and young adults. The 2019 YRBS results serve as a baseline for years to come as we understand the impact of COVID and help adolescents recover from the effects, both mental and physical, of the COVID-19 pandemic. National, state, and local surveys are conducted every 2 years among high school students throughout the United States. More than 13,000 U.S. high school students participated in the 2019 national YRBS. The report includes national YRBS data and data from surveys conducted in 44 states, such as Pennsylvania Youth Survey (PAYS), Maryland Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS/YTS), New Jersey, High School YRBS, Healthy Kids Colorado Survey (HKCS), and the Montana YRBS. The national YRBS also surveys 28 large urban school districts, 3 territories, and 2 tribal governments.


The National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH)<ref>https://nsduhweb.rti.org/respweb/homepage.cfm</ref>, conducted in 2015 in the United States on 68,073 people 12 years of age and older, revealed that the prevalence of past-year pain reliever NMU was 3.9% among 12–17-year-olds (Hughes et al., 2016). The 2015 Monitoring The Future (MTF) survey among high school students revealed that older adolescents (12th graders) had the highest annual prevalence of OxyContin® and Vicodin® use (3.7% and 4.4% respectively), with the lowest annual prevalence seen in 8th graders (0.8% and 0.9%, respectively) (Johnston, O'Malley, Miech, Bachman, & Schulenberg, 2016).<ref>https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED578539</ref>
'''Impact of COVID-19''' The Monitoring the Future survey is given annually to students in 8th, 10th, and 12th grades who self-report their substance use behaviors over various time periods, such as past 30 days, past 12 months, and lifetime. The survey also documents students’ perception of harm, disapproval of use, and perceived availability of drugs. The survey results are released the same year the data are collected. From February through June 2021, the Monitoring the Future investigators collected 32,260 surveys from students enrolled across 319 public and private schools in the United States. The percentage of adolescents reporting drug use decreased significantly in 2021 as the COVID-19 pandemic endured according to 2021 Monitoring the Future survey. <ref>https://www.drugabuse.gov/drug-topics/trends-statistics/monitoring-future</ref> These rates "held steady" in 2022. <ref>https://nida.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/2022/12/most-reported-substance-use-among-adolescents-held-steady-in-2022</ref> Reported 2021 declines in the use of substances among teens include:


&nbsp;
* Alcohol: The percentage of students who reported using alcohol within the past year decreased significantly for 10th and 12th grade students and remained stable for eighth-graders.
** 8th graders: 17.2% reported using alcohol in the past year in 2021, remaining steady compared to 20.5% in 2020 (not a statistically significant decrease)
** 10th graders: 28.5% reported using alcohol in the past year in 2021, a statistically significant decrease from 40.7% in 2020
** 12th graders: 46.5% reported using alcohol in the past year in 2021, a statistically significant decrease from 55.3% in 2020


'''Opioid Education Programs'''<br/> Recommendations for selecting a school program<ref>https://preventionpluswellness.com/blogs/news/the-opioid-epidemic-and-youth-prevention-considerations</ref>
* Marijuana: The percentage of students who reported using marijuana (in all forms, including smoking and vaping) within the past year decreased significantly for eighth, 10th, and 12th grade students.
** 8th graders: 7.1% reported using marijuana in the past year in 2021, compared to 11.4% in 2020
** 10th graders: 17.3% reported using marijuana in the past year in 2021, compared to 28.0% in 2020
** 12th graders: 30.5% reported using marijuana in the past year in 2021, compared to 35.2% in 2020


Start by looking at programs that have evidence that they work. The list on Blueprints for Healthy Youth Development is a place to start. Do a keyword search of this registry using the term “opioid prevention” to find programs.<br/> <br/> Look for programs that have a good Return on Investment (effective, but not too expensive).<br/> <br/> Adopt programs that not only prevent substance use but also promote protective fitness and healthy habits among teens. Programs that integrate substance use prevention with positive behavior promotion are more likely to be accepted and used by youth, families, and funders than those limited to just communicating substance use risks and harm. This was key to the success of the Youth in Iceland program and is backed by many studies.<br/> <br/> Promote prevention in multiple settings to reach a broader youth audience and ensure overlapping prevention messages. Critical settings for providing prevention programs include schools and colleges, healthcare, youth and family organizations, juvenile justice, sports and recreation programs, and homes.<br/> Innovate to make evidence-based programs more relevant in these fast-changing times. Research takes time and the opioid crisis is moving fast. You should consider how to innovate and enhance programs that may have targeted other drugs to make them more relevant for today's opioid crisis.
* Vaping nicotine: Vaping continues to be the predominant method of nicotine consumption among young people, though the percentage of students who reported vaping nicotine within the past year decreased significantly for eighth, 10th, and 12th grade students.
** Eighth graders: 12.1% reported vaping nicotine in the past year in 2021, compared to 16.6% in 2020
** 10th graders: 19.5% reported vaping nicotine in the past year in 2021, compared to 30.7% in 2020
** 12th graders: 26.6% reported vaping nicotine in the past year in 2021, compared to 34.5% in 2020


'''School Prevention Programs have a Positive Impact'''<br/> In 2012, a special report of the National Survey on Drug Use and Health reported that 75% of youth ages twelve to seventeen reported having seen or heard drug or alcohol prevention messages at school. Of those who received such exposure, 8.9% reported using an illicit drug in the past month, versus 12.3% among students who reported no exposure to such messages.<br/> &nbsp;
*Any illicit drug, other than marijuana: The percentage of students who reported using any illicit drug (other than marijuana) within the past year decreased significantly for eighth, 10th, and 12th grade students.
** 8th graders: 4.6% reported using any illicit drug (other than marijuana) in the past year in 2021, compared to 7.7% in 2020
** 10th graders: 5.1% reported using any illicit drug (other than marijuana) in the past year in 2021, compared to 8.6% in 2020
**12th graders: 7.2% reported using any illicit drug (other than marijuana) in the past year in 2021, compared to 11.4% in 2020
** Significant declines in use were also reported across a wide range of drugs for many of the age cohorts, including for cocaine, hallucinogens, and non-medical use of amphetamines, tranquilizers, and prescription opioids.


'''Classroom Resources'''
“In addition to looking at these significant one-year declines in substance use among young people, the real benefit of the Monitoring the Future survey is our unique ability to track changes over time, and over the course of history,” said Richard A. Miech, Ph.D., team lead of the Monitoring the Future study at the University of Michigan. “We knew that this year’s data would illuminate how the COVID-19 pandemic may have impacted substance use among young people, and in the coming years, we will find out whether those impacts are long-lasting as we continue tracking the drug use patterns of these unique cohorts of adolescents.”


'''''&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Operation Prevention'''''
“We have never seen such dramatic decreases in drug use among teens in just a one-year period. These data are unprecedented and highlight one unexpected potential consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic, which caused seismic shifts in the day-to-day lives of adolescents,” said Nora Volkow, M.D., NIDA director. “Moving forward, it will be crucial to identify the pivotal elements of this past year that contributed to decreased drug use – whether related to drug availability, family involvement, differences in peer pressure, or other factors – and harness them to inform future prevention efforts.”


*Operation Prevention, a joint partnership between Discovery Education and the DEA, developed free resources that "that are aligned to national health and science standards and integrate seamlessly into classroom instruction." Toolkits and lesson plans have been designed for middle school students and another for high school students. A parent toolkit designed alongside the material to provide further discussion of the topic at home is included as well. See Empower & Strengthen Parents for more strategies to include parents. See Tools & Resources for copies of toolkits.<br/> <br/> '''''Not Prescribed'''''
'''Cost-Benefit of Evidence-Based Prevention.''' Research has shown that preventing drug abuse and other problem behaviors can produce benefits for communities that outweigh the monetary costs. The analysis of the return on investment of evidence-based prevention programs is part of a series of reports prepared by researchers at the Washington State Institute for Public Policy. Together, these reports consistently show that effective prevention programs not only work but can produce dramatic savings: <ref>Lee, S., Aos, S., Drake, E., Pennucci, A., Miller, M. & Anderson, L. (2013). Return on investment: Evidence-based options to improve statewide outcomes. October 2013 (Printed on 3-20-14). Olympia: Washington State Institute for Public Policy</ref>
*Not Prescribed is a classroom-based lesson empowering teens with the science and the stories to understand the risks of misusing prescription drugs and the skills to rise above. It is provided at not cost to non-profit organizations and schools.&nbsp; &nbsp;<br/> <br/> '''''Everfi's Prescription Drug Safety Course'''''
*Botvin LifeSkills Training (LST) program produced a $50 benefit for every $1 invested in terms of reduced corrections costs, welfare, social services, drug and mental health treatment, and increased employment and tax revenue. LST had the highest return on investment of all substance abuse prevention curricula studied.  
*EVERFI provides schools with a free, state-of-the-art on-line learning course on prescription drug safety&nbsp; <ref>https://everfi.com/offerings/listing/prescription-drug-abuse-prevention/</ref>  
*The Strengthening Families Program: For Parents and Youth 10–14 (SFP 10–14) also produced net benefits in preventing adult cases of alcohol abuse. For every dollar spent, a $10 benefit was measured as a result of the SFP 10–14 program.
*Due to support from a wide range of public and private supporters in the Presecription Drug Safety Network, EVERFI has the resources and experience to delivier a high-quality E-learning course to schools at no charge.&nbsp; EVERFI has a long history of provideing training on topics like personal financial management, and they have leveraged that experience to create a 30 to 40-minute course that can be offered in schools or in out-of-school programs.&nbsp; &nbsp;This report shares some of the impact that this course is having.&nbsp;<br/> <br/> '''''Analysis of Research-Based Programs and Return on Investment'''''
* Guiding Good Choices (GGC) yielded a $6 benefit.  
*This report looks at thirteen Youth Marijuana Prevention programs and shares valuable insights on the Return on Investment of these programs. Use of marijuana is a risk factor for starting misuse of opioids, and there are underlying factors where prevention efforts impacts the use of many different types of drugs.<br/> <br/> '''''Wsipp_Preventing Youth Substance Use''':'' A Review of Thirteen Programs Benefit-Cost-Results&nbsp; &nbsp;Preventing Youth Substance Use<ref>https://www.wsipp.wa.gov/ReportFile/1562/Wsipp_Preventing-Youth-Substance-Use-A-Review-of-Thirteen-Programs_Report.pdf</ref><br/> <br/> '''''Positive Prevention Plus''':'' A comprehensive school-based sexual health education and teen pregnancy prevention curriculum.<ref>https://positivepreventionplus.com/</ref>&nbsp;
* The Skills, Opportunity, And Recognition (SOAR) program had a benefit-to-cost ratio of $4.25 for every dollar spent.


= Relevant Research =
=Impactful Federal, State, and Local Policies=


In this section, please capture any recent findings, reports, or data on the topic. Please also highlight any gaps or existing disparities. Please include references and links to the information so that we may add a footnote for the reader to find further information. Do we have any available research about discriminatory practices? Is there information about the value of access to educational opportunities?
'''National Programs'''


'''Stigma in School-Based Programs'''
In general, all prevention policies and selected programs are designed and implemented to reduce risk factors while also harnessing the buffering effects of protective factors. The specific approaches taken to drug prevention are quite varied in states across the county due to the autonomy granted to individual states and schools on the topic. However, all schools in the United States are charged with complying with National Academic Standards, Common Core Standards, and State Standards for Health Education when selecting a drug prevention program/curriculum.


Researchers in Northern Ireland found that teachers often used scare-based strategies because they believed it would&nbsp;help deter students aged 14 to 16 from using substances.<ref>http://www.jceps.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/15-1-5.pdf</ref> Of the fourteen teachers interviewed, only two had histories of substance use. The twelve other teachers based their perceptions of illicit drug use on the news or the experiences of their friends or students from previous years. The title of the paper is “Junkies, Wasters and Thieves”.<ref>http://www.jceps.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/15-1-5.pdf</ref> These are all words that teachers in the study used to describe individuals who use illicit substances. Numerous teachers told the researchers that they used these words to prevent students from being interested in drug use, even if it meant stigmatizing those affected. The researchers questioned students about how their teachers' language use affected their perceptions of individuals who use drugs. Many students described people who use drugs as criminals, people who “have diseases”, and a disgrace.<ref>http://www.jceps.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/15-1-5.pdf</ref>&nbsp;
Dr. Rahul Gupta, Director of the White House Office of National Drug Control Policy has stated that “the Biden-Harris Administration is committed to using data and evidence to guide our prevention efforts so it is important to identify all the factors that may have led to this decrease in substance use to better inform prevention strategies moving forward. The Administration is investing historic levels of funding for evidence-based prevention programs because delaying substance use until after adolescence significantly reduces the likelihood of developing a substance use disorder.”


Some students in the school-based program used illicit substances. They reported feeling like an outcast and stated that they could not ask for support or help from their teacher. At many of these schools, using a scare-based approach split the school in half. Half of the students reported believing that individuals who use drugs should be shamed or imprisoned. The other half sympathized with individuals who face difficulties with substance use or had a personal connection with substance use. The drastic difference of opinion led to an us vs. them mindset, creating distinct groups within schools.&nbsp;
SAMHSA has  directed billions of dollars to states through block grants and other programs such as the State Opioid Response. SAMHSA maintains information on laws and regulations pertaining to substance abuse and mental health services, programs, and related topics. A few examples of relevant legislation and funding follow: <ref>https://www.samhsa.gov/about-us/who-we-are/laws-regulations</ref>


Ultimately, this study displayed the dangers of school-based programs that use a “shock-horror approach” to prevent kids from using substances because they&nbsp;promote&nbsp;stigmatizing individuals and seeing them as unworthy of support.<ref>http://www.jceps.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/15-1-5.pdf</ref>
* Safe and Drug-Free Schools and Communities Act (SDFSCA) is Title IV of the "Improving America's Schools Act of 1994” which was a reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA). Programs authorized under this legislation provide financial assistance for state and local drug and violence prevention activities in elementary and secondary schools and institutions of higher education. Activities may be carried out by state and local educational agencies and by other public and private nonprofit organizations. <ref>https://ojjdp.ojp.gov/sites/g/files/xyckuh176/files/pubs/gun_violence/sect08-i.html</ref>


&nbsp;
* Education Department General Administrative Regulations (EDGAR) Part 86 has particular import for all institutions of higher education (IHEs) that receive federal funding. These regulations were established as part of the 1990 Drug and Alcohol Abuse Prevention Act. <ref>https://safesupportivelearning.ed.gov/sites/default/files/hec/product/dfscr.pdf</ref>


'''Effectiveness of Different Kinds of School-Based Prevention Programs'''
* Comprehensive Addiction Recovery Act in 2016 and the SUPPORT for Patients and Communities Act in 2018 addresses opioid misuse, addiction, and overdose deaths through a variety of initiatives in prevention, treatment, harm reduction, and recovery support.


Not all school-based programs are created equally. Researchers typically find that more traditional and common approaches, like Drug Abuse Resistance Education (D.A.R.E.), are ineffective.<ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1448384/</ref> One study found that there should be a greater focus on risk factors specific to the students; and that programs targeting teens need to keep them as an individual in mind, as well as the teen developmental stage and their social context.<ref>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0091743596900614</ref>
* In 2021, amid considerable increases in substance use during the COVID-19 pandemic, funding to address opioid and other substance use and addiction was included in several COVID-19-relief packages. <ref>https://www.healthaffairs.org/do/10.1377/forefront.20210607.239986/full/</ref>


Multiple studies have come to the same conclusion that the most effective programs in schools are interactive.<ref>https://lx.iriss.org.uk/sites/default/files/resources/0023318.pdf</ref>&nbsp;As opposed to non-interactive programs, those deemed interactive encourage active participation from every student. Active participation&nbsp;may look like classroom discussions or a lesson plan surrounding skills practice. Importantly, interactions should primarily occur between peers, not between students and the teacher. Non-interactive programs typically involve the teacher leading the class and often using most of the class period to teach via a presentation. When participatory activities are included, they typically involve interactions between the teacher and student, like answering questions, rather than between students.
Training resources and information regarding best practices is available through the Department of Education. The Office of Safe and Healthy Students (formerly OSDFS) administers, coordinates, and recommends policy for improving the quality and excellence of programs and activities which are designed to: <ref>https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/oese/oshs/aboutus.html</ref>
* Provide financial assistance for drug and violence prevention activities and activities that promote the health and wellbeing of students in elementary and secondary schools, and institutions of higher education. Activities may be carried out by state and local educational agencies and by other public and private nonprofit organizations.
* Participate in the formulation and development of ED program policy and legislative proposals and in overall Administration policies related to violence and drug prevention.
* Participate in interagency committees, groups, and partnerships related to drug and violence prevention, coordinating with other federal agencies on issues related to comprehensive school health, and advising the Secretary of Education on the formulation of comprehensive school health education policy.
*Participate with other federal agencies in the development of a national research agenda for drug and violence prevention.
* Administer the Department's programs relating to character and civics education.


Along with building self-esteem and improving decision-making skills, school-based programs must also acknowledge the social environment that kids and adolescents live in when surrounded by their peers. Focusing on peer pressure and real-life encounters students may have with friends better prepares them to deal with uncomfortable situations. Studies have found that programs that focus solely on increasing self-esteem and encouraging good decision-making lack a focus on substances,<ref>https://lx.iriss.org.uk/sites/default/files/resources/0023318.pdf</ref> highlighting the importance of encouraging teachers to discuss topics they may view as taboo. Unless teachers discuss realistic scenarios, students will be ill-equipped to use the skills they learned inside the classroom when faced with peer pressure.
'''State Programs'''
Some states have prevention laws in place that date back to the 1970s. Two recent examples of statewide policies include:


&nbsp;
* The Start Talking Maryland Act of 2017. The Code of Maryland Regulations (COMAR) 13A.04.18: Programs in Comprehensive Health Education training standard, Using a Skills-Based Approach to Substance Abuse Prevention Education.
* Colorado HB21-1276 - Prevention of Substance Use Disorders was signed into law in 2021. Section 18 has a focus on the establishment of a Prevention Collaborative.


'''Effectiveness of School-Based Programs in Rural Communities'''
= Available Tools and Resources =


A meta-analysis regarding the general effectiveness of school-based programs in rural areas.<ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2768124/</ref> Researchers concluded that students that benefited from the program the most did not use substances to begin with and were part of an interactive school-based program. It was also discovered that the lessons learned from the program had the greatest impact six months after its completion, and after that, positive effects began to decrease. The results exemplify the importance of starting preventive programs at a young age since those already using substances did not have a reduction in the use of new substances like those who were substance-free.
'''SAMHSA:'''
*SAMHSA Evidence-Based Resource Center <ref>https://www.samhsa.gov/resource-search/ebp#collapse-samhsa_uswds_base_resourcecenter</ref>
*SAMHSA Focus on Prevention/Strategies and Programs to Prevent Substance Use<ref>https://store.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/d7/priv/sma10-4120.pdf</ref>
*"Student Assistance Guide: A Guide for School Administrators" outlines how to build effective and evidence-based substance use prevention/early-intervention/treatment programs in the school setting.<ref>https://store.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/tthy-student-assistance-guide-pep19-03-01-001.pdf</ref>


= Impactful Federal, State, and Local Policies =
'''SAFE Project:'''
*'''SAFE Choices''' is a program within SAFE Project that focuses on fostering resiliency in youth development through collaborative and diversified approaches that reduce risk of substance addiction and mental health challenges while empowering SAFE Choices in all stages of youth development.<ref>https://www.safeproject.us/safe-choices/</ref>
*See the wiki titled "Empower Parents" for more detailed information on how parents can discuss the adverse effects of substance use, misuse, and abuse with their children in an effective and compassionate manner. <ref>https://www.yoursafesolutions.us/wiki/Empower_Parents</ref>


Please list any federal, state, or local laws, policies, or regulations that support this topic or ones that could be a possible barrier. Are there laws or policies other states should know about and replicate for success?
'''Searchable online registries of evidence-based prevention programs:'''


'''California''': Public schools are required to provide drug use education. Specifically, California law requires an anti-drug stance, which has been criticized by many. Due to lack of enforcement, it has not been followed by teachers around the state. So, while schools do ensure that substance use is being discussed in schools, strategies vary from abstinence-based to evidence-based curriculums.<ref>https://www.kqed.org/stateofhealth/363545/in-the-land-of-legal-weed-drug-education-moves-from-dont-to-delay</ref>
*Blueprints for Healthy Youth Development at the University of Colorado, Boulder <ref>https://www.blueprintsprograms.org/program-search/</ref>


'''Connecticut''': In public schools, students at every grade level must learn about substances and how to avoid their harmful effects (CGS § 10-19(a)). Programs in elementary and secondary schools are required to be looked at by “public health and mental health and addiction services commissioners” to ensure it is a quality curriculum. <ref>https://www.cga.ct.gov/2002/rpt/2002-R-0140.htm</ref>
*California Evidence-Based Clearinghouse for Child Welfare<ref>https://www.cebc4cw.org/search/by-program-name/</ref>


*Coalition for Evidence-Based Policy <ref>http://coalition4evidence.org</ref>


*Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning Curricula <ref>https://pg.casel.org/</ref>


= Available Tools and Resources =
*Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Model Programs Guide <ref>https://www.ojjdp.gov/mpg/</ref>
 
*Promising Practice Network <ref>https://promisingpractices.net/programs.asp</ref>
 
*PTTC Network Guide to Online Registries for Substance Misuse Prevention Evidence-based Programs and Practices <ref> https://pttcnetwork.org/centers/pacific-southwest-pttc/product/guide-online-registries-substance-misuse-prevention-evidence</ref> 


Oftentimes, there are already great resources in the field that have been developed, but they are not housed in a single place. Please use this section to share information about those resources and drive the reader to that resource. It may be a worksheet, toolkit, fact sheet, framework/model, infographic, new technology, etc. I suggest no more than 5 really good links and a corresponding description for the reader. We also can use this section to highlight some of the great resources and programs at SAFE Project.
*Social Programs That Work <ref>https://evidencebasedprograms.org/</ref>


&nbsp;
*Results First Clearinghouse <ref>https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/data-visualizations/2015/results-first-clearinghouse-database</ref>


'''A Toolkit to Start Substance Use Prevention in Elementary Schools&nbsp;'''
*Washington State Health Care Authority, Division of Behavioral Health and Recovery – the Athena Forum <ref>https://theathenaforum.org/best_practices_toolkit</ref>


Provides information and resources for elementary school teachers to begin teaching their students about substance use in an age-appropriate and evidence-based way. Examples of what this toolkit includes are ways to talk about the program with school administrators, parents, and students, as well as grants to apply for and examples of curriculums to teach.<ref>https://www.dellchildrens.net/wp-content/uploads/sites/60/2019/08/Substance-Use-Prevention-Toolkit-for-Elementary-Schools.pdf</ref>
*What Works Clearinghouse <ref>https://www.ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/</ref>


&nbsp;
'''For more information on prevention programs and frameworks:'''


'''Lesson Plan and Activity Finder'''
*CDC Framework for Thinking about Evidence <ref>https://www.hidta.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/CDC-Understanding-Evidence.pdf</ref>


The National Institutes of Health created a database that allows teachers to look through lesson plans regarding substance use. The lowest grade level that the resources are aimed at is the fifth grade, and they go up until twelfth grade. There are options to choose either English or Spanish lesson plans.<ref>https://teens.drugabuse.gov/teachers/lessonplans?sort=revised_date:desc&language=en</ref>
*NIDA Preventing Drug Use among Children and Adolescents <ref>https://www.hidta.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/NIDA-Prevention-Program-Principles.pdf</ref>


&nbsp;
'''Helpful resources and guides:'''


'''Safety First: Real Drug Education for Teens- Sample Lesson Plan&nbsp;<ref>https://drugpolicy.org/sites/default/files/safety-first-sample-lesson_0.pdf </ref>'''
*The Network for Public Health Law "Policies in Schools to Reduce Overdose and Other Drug-related Harm" Webinar explores substance abuse policy issues in schools.<ref>https://www.networkforphl.org/resources/policies-in-schools-to-reduce-overdose-and-other-drug-related-harm/</ref>


The Drug Policy Alliance created the first harm reduction-based substance education program in the United States aimed at high schoolers. It is intended for high school freshman and sophomore students and has fifteen lesson plans lasting around 45 minutes. They offer the entire curriculum after registering at this link: &nbsp;[https://engage.drugpolicy.org/secure/download-safety-first-curriculum?_ga=2.96173340.1473889140.1636474296-215870604.1636330811 https://engage.drugpolicy.org/secure/download-safety-first-curriculum?_ga=2.96173340.1473889140.1636474296-215870604.1636330811]
* The Washington State Institute on public policy (WSIPP) has information on cost-benefit for public health and drug prevention programs. <ref>https://www.wsipp.wa.gov/BenefitCost?topicId=9</ref>


= Promising Practices =
*Washington State Health Care Authority, Division of Behavioral Health and Recovery – the Athena Forum <ref>https://theathenaforum.org/best_practices_toolkit</ref>


<br/> '''SPORT Prevention Plus Wellness: '''A single-session screening and brief intervention that integrates substance use prevention with the promoting of physical activity and healthy behaviors for youth.<ref>https://www.blueprintsprograms.org/programs/477999999/sport-prevention-plus-wellness/#:~:text=SPORT%20Prevention%20Plus%20Wellness%20is%20a%20health%20promotion,counterproductive%20to%20achieving%20positive%20image%20and%20behavior%20goals.</ref>
*The National Institute on Drug Abuse <ref>https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugs-brains-behavior-science-addiction/preventing-drug-misuse-addiction-best-strategy</ref>


&nbsp;'''Positive Prevention Plus:''' A comprehensive school-based sexual health education and teen pregnancy prevention curriculum.<ref>https://positivepreventionplus.com/curriculum-downloads/</ref>
*Suicide Prevention Resource Center: Mental Health Promotion and Suicide Prevention for LGBTQIA2S+ Youth a Resource guide for Professionals, Families and Communities <ref>https://sprc.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/LGBTQIA2S-Resource-Guide.pdf</ref>


'''&nbsp;Olweus Bullying Prevention Program:''' Includes schoolwide, classroom, individual, and community strategies.<ref>https://olweus.sites.clemson.edu/</ref>
'''Other Relevant Data Sources''':  


'''Media Literacy'''<br/> Media literacy is a promising approach to school-based substance abuse intervention.<ref>http://mediadetectiveprograms.com/media-literacys-role-in-prevention/</ref><br/> <br/> Beneficial outcomes include:
* National Center for Drug Abuse Statistics <ref>https://drugabusestatistics.org/teen-drug-use/</ref>


Increased media skepticism<ref name="Kupersmidt, J.B., Barrett, T.M., Elmore, K.C., & Benson, J.W. (2007). Preliminary Findings from the Evaluation of the Elementary Media Literacy, Substance Abuse Prevention Project. Paper presented at the first Research Summit of the Alliance for a Media Literate America, St. Louis, MO. Retrieved from">http://mediadetectiveprograms.com/media-literacys-role-in-prevention/</ref><br/> Increased perceived efficiency in resisting pro-drug media messages<ref>http://mediadetectiveprograms.com/media-literacys-role-in-prevention/</ref><br/> Greater ability to make counter-arguments to beer advertisements<ref>http://mediadetectiveprograms.com/media-literacys-role-in-prevention/</ref><br/> Increased belief that smoking and drinking are "wrong"<ref>http://mediadetectiveprograms.com/media-literacys-role-in-prevention/</ref><br/> Reduced middle school boys' intentions to use alcohol or tobacco in the future<ref>http://mediadetectiveprograms.com/media-literacys-role-in-prevention/</ref>
* National Survey on Drug Use and Health <ref>https://nsduhweb.rti.org/respweb/homepage.cfm</ref>


'''Healthy Youth Development Programs in Schools reduce Opioid Misuse<ref>http://mediadetectiveprograms.com/media-literacys-role-in-prevention/</ref>'''<br/> &nbsp;
* National Youth Tobacco Survey <ref>https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/surveys/nyts/index.htm</ref>


'''Putnam Middle School Social Norms Campaign<ref>https://preventionsolutions.edc.org/book/export/html/242</ref>'''<br/> In partnership with Putnam Pride, this campaign focused on the common misconceptions that students have about their peers' substance use. Most kids believe that a majority of students use substances when, in reality, only a very small percentage does. Changing social norms of a school by educating students on the reality of substance use would lead to a changed perspective of drug use as deviant rather than something that "everyone is doing."
= Promising Practices =


&nbsp; Although this program focused on alcohol use, the same idea could be used for prescription opioid drugs as an education tool for students.
'''SPORT Prevention Plus Wellness: '''A single-session screening and brief intervention that integrates substance use prevention with the promotion of physical activity and healthy behaviors for youth.<ref>https://www.blueprintsprograms.org/programs/477999999/sport-prevention-plus-wellness/#:~:text=SPORT%20Prevention%20Plus%20Wellness%20is%20a%20health%20promotion,counterproductive%20to%20achieving%20positive%20image%20and%20behavior%20goals.</ref>


&nbsp;
'''Positive Prevention Plus:''' A comprehensive school-based sexual health education and teen pregnancy prevention curriculum.<ref>https://positivepreventionplus.com/curriculum-downloads/</ref>


'''SAFIR -- Substance Abuse Free Indian River<ref>https://safirc.org/</ref>'''<br/> This Drug Free Coalition in Vero Beach, Florida, has been implementing several promising programs in schools and working with community partners.<br/> &nbsp; “We are very proud of our initiatives: SAFIR Rx, Talk, They Hear You, No One’s House and Friday Night Done Right, but we are particularly excited about Know the Law, which is conducted by law enforcement officers (LEOs) in the classroom,” said Robin Dapp, Executive Director. “It helps bring students and officers together.”[9]At the beginning of each school year, school resource officers provide the Know the Law classes to incoming high school freshmen. The program is designed to make our local youth and young adults aware of the laws and the consequences of breaking the law. The training covers the common offenses committed by youth on a regular basis.
'''Olweus Bullying Prevention Program:''' Includes school-wide, classroom, individual, and community strategies.<ref>https://olweus.sites.clemson.edu/</ref>


&nbsp; SAFIR has supported the delivery of a very comprehensive prevention strategy for our middle school youth. All middle schools in the community receive Botvin’s LifeSkills Training program, beginning in 6th grade through 8th grade. The curriculum is delivered by the Substance Awareness Center, and consists of a total of 30 lessons.
'''Media Detective:''' Increasing media literacy is a promising approach to school-based substance abuse intervention. Beneficial outcomes include:<ref>http://mediadetectiveprograms.com/media-literacys-role-in-prevention/</ref><br/>
* Increased media skepticism
* Increased perceived efficiency in resisting pro-drug media messages
* Greater ability to make counter-arguments to beer advertisements
* Increased belief that smoking and drinking are "wrong"
* Reduced middle school boys' intentions to use alcohol or tobacco in the future
* Reduced opioid misuse


&nbsp; A significant environmental strategy that has been embraced by local law enforcement is Civil Citation. See details on<br/> &nbsp;
'''SAFIR -- Substance Abuse Free Indian River<ref>https://safirc.org/</ref>''' This Drug Free Coalition in Vero Beach, Florida, has been implementing several promising programs in schools and working with community partners. “We are very proud of our initiatives: SAFIR Rx, Talk, They Hear You, No One’s House and Friday Night Done Right, but we are particularly excited about Know the Law, which is conducted by law enforcement officers (LEOs) in the classroom,” said Robin Dapp, Executive Director. “It helps bring students and officers together.” At the beginning of each school year, school resource officers provide the Know the Law classes to incoming high school freshmen. The program is designed to make our local youth and young adults aware of the laws and the consequences of breaking the law. The training covers the common offenses committed by youth on a regular basis. Civil Citation is a significant environmental strategy that has been embraced by local law enforcement. SAFIR has supported the delivery of a comprehensive prevention strategy for middle school youth. All middle schools in the community receive Botvin’s LifeSkills Training program, beginning in 6th grade through 8th grade. The curriculum is delivered by the Substance Awareness Center, and consists of a total of 30 lessons.


'''Boy Scouts & Girl Scouts<ref>https://www.getsmartaboutdrugs.gov/get-involved/red-ribbon-week-patch-program</ref>'''<br/> Each of these groups can participate in the DEA Red Ribbon Patch Program. This program empowers young people to create, embrace and strengthen their drug free belief. See Tools & Resources details on participation.
'''Boy Scouts & Girl Scouts''' Each of these groups participates in the DEA Red Ribbon Patch Program<ref>https://www.getsmartaboutdrugs.gov/get-involved/red-ribbon-week-patch-program</ref>. This program empowers young people to create, embrace and strengthen their drug free belief. The Girl Scout Research Institute has aligned its three sets of leadership outcomes (Discover, Connect, and Take Action) to the Developmental Asset framework that is promoted by the Search Institute. <ref>https://www.girlscouts.org/content/dam/girlscouts-gsusa/forms-and-documents/about-girl-scouts/research/gsle_asset_map_2012.pdf</ref>


= Sources =
= Sources =

Latest revision as of 12:20, 18 October 2024

Introductory Paragraph

With fatal drug overdoses reaching the highest levels recorded in history, more and more schools are recognizing that students' overall health and wellbeing are of paramount importance as children are often the silent victims of the addiction disease which knows no boundaries. Schools are in a unique position of having the ability to systematically reach a large portion of youth at all stages of development from preschool to late adolescence. Because attending school is a major part of a young person’s life, schools can serve as a leading protective factor from the adverse effects of substance use, misuse, and abuse.

The school campus provides a learning environment and an opportunity to provide education on lifelong healthy skill and behavior development. Choosing curricula which reach all students aligns to a public health approach. School-based prevention programs which focus on broad-based skill building (e.g., psychosocial development, life-skills development, and social-emotional learning, and connectedness) have greater promise than substance-specific programs. [1]

Research shows that school health programs reduce the prevalence of health risk behaviors among youth and have a positive effect on academic performance. [2] Preventing the onset of substance use during the critical years of youth development can have positive lifelong results. Therefore, in addition to providing quality education and social learning environments, schools are taking a proactive health approach with a keen focus on substance prevention. Research has shown that young people who feel connected to their school are less likely to engage in many risk behaviors, including early sexual initiation, alcohol, tobacco, and other drug use, as well as violence and gang involvement. Students who feel connected to their school are also more likely to have better academic achievement, including higher grades and test scores, have better school attendance, and stay in school longer. [3]

There is a vast offering of school-based prevention programs that can enhance and create a whole school approach to youth development which can serve to prevent substance use before it starts. Such a proactive upstream strategy is needed to prevent the devastating consequences of substance use.

Key Information

Behaviors established during adolescence often continue into adulthood, and young people’s experiences during this critical time have long-lasting impacts on their future health and well-being. The Center for Disease Control has established an evidence-based approach to school-based HIV and STD prevention. These evidence-based strategies benefit all students. Further, activities related to health education can be tailored to address health outcomes other than sexual behaviors, including high-risk substance use, violence, and mental health. Promoting safe and supportive environments, which includes increasing school connectedness and engaging parents, can impact all of these health outcomes. Schools, families, and communities can work together to provide more intentional messages, skills, and mental health support for adolescents so that encouraging trends can continue and troubling trends can be reversed. [4] Most kids believe that a majority of students use substances when, in reality, only a very small percentage does. Changing social norms of a school by educating students on the reality of substance use leads to a changed perspective of drug use as deviant rather than something that "everyone is doing."

What Is a Drug Prevention Program? The most effective prevention programs require a commitment of time, priority standing (curriculum inclusion), and are recurring and consistent. Prevention is NOT as simple as just showing up once and telling individuals to “Just Say No.” As with drug treatment, a “one-size-fits-all” approach to drug prevention is not effective. Many of the most common strategies being used by well-meaning parents, schools, and communities have been shown by careful research to be ineffective. Some have even caused harm by unintentionally reinforcing pro-use attitudes, behaviors, or norms. Knowing what works in prevention, and what doesn’t, is vital to keeping young people from developing serious and life-long issues with addiction, as alcohol and other drug abuse remain the problem behaviors contributing to the most serious problems facing our communities today.

Features of the highest quality and most effective drug prevention programs are listed below:

  • Contains evidence-informed and evidence-based strategy.
  • Intentional focus on all substances of use, misuse, and abuse (alcohol, nicotine, marijuana, prescription drugs, illicit drugs, over-the-counter drugs/medications).
  • Designed to address problems and their root causes as indicated by local data.
  • Reduce risk factors and enhance protective factors.
  • Appropriately timed - students receive accurate information and skill development in advance of age of onset of use.
  • Delivered by teachers/prevention professionals who have achieved a high level of training in the field of substance prevention, intervention, treatment, and recovery.
  • Recurring in nature with follow-up booster lessons at subsequent grade levels.
  • Utilizes multiple teaching techniques to engage all students -- behavior rehearsal, interactivity, and open communication.
  • Teaches skill development which includes: self-control, emotional awareness, communication, problem-solving, and advanced capacity for learning.
  • Enhances school connectedness with a whole-school approach which includes healthy alternative activities.
  • Provides accurate and real-life information that corrects misperceptions versus fabricated scare tactics.
  • Enhances family bonding and communication.
  • Reinforced at the community sector level (policies, laws, media)
  • Inclusive and compassionate, taking into account that some youth will have used and/or have close friends and family members who are actively using, living in recovery, or have passed away from a substance use disorder.

The core goal of prevention programs is the development of lifelong attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors that supports healthy choices and open the door for youth to reach their fullest potential. Specifics include:

  • Delaying the onset of substance use
  • Decreasing overall substance use
  • Reducing the loss of life due to overdose

Types of Prevention Programming. Evidence-based programs are structured for three different audiences:

  • Universal curricula provide all students in the school, or within select grade levels, with the substance use information and prevention skills.
  • Selective programs target an entire subgroup that has higher risk, regardless of the degree of risk of any individual within the group.
  • Indicated curricula prevent the onset of additional substance use in individuals who have used a substance but who do not meet the medical criteria for addiction.

Evidence-Based Drug Prevention Program Registries. There are many strategies that have been confirmed by research to show a positive impact on youth choices and healthy behaviors. Meticulous evaluation has proven evidence-based strategies to be effective over time. Registries of evidence-based prevention programming are an invaluable resources in the selection of suitable programs that fit with the local landscape.

It is very important to note that even the best-designed programs can be ineffective if the fidelity of the implementation process or content is added to or subtracted from the scope and sequence. When researching and making a program selection, careful attention should be given to the fidelity model and the intended design of the program.

There are times when an evidence-based program may not be an option due to readiness, cost, capacity, funding, and/or training barriers. In these cases, locally developed programs are often created. When it comes to substance use prevention, extreme levels of caution must be exercised to ensure that the best intentions do not backfire and actually hinder or even cause harm to the local conditions and people the program was intended to help.

Relevant Research

Although most youth are in good health, some are at an increased risk for behaviors that can lead to poor health outcomes, such as high-risk substance use. According to national datasets, the prevalence of alcohol, tobacco, and other drug use increases rapidly from early to late adolescence, peaks during the transition to young adulthood, and declines through the remainder of adulthood. There is accumulating evidence showing that the initiation of substance use early in life contributes to higher levels of use and abuse later in life. Early-onset is also associated with a host of later negative health, social, and behavioral outcomes including physical and mental health problems, violent and aggressive behavior, and adjustment problems in the workplace and family. [5] The majority of adults who meet the criteria for having a substance use disorder started using substances during their teen and young adult years. [6]

Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS) [7] The Center for Disease Control’s YRBS monitors priority health risks and experiences among high school students across the country. The YRBS results help in understanding risks that contribute to the leading causes of death and disability among youth and young adults. The 2019 YRBS results serve as a baseline for years to come as we understand the impact of COVID and help adolescents recover from the effects, both mental and physical, of the COVID-19 pandemic. National, state, and local surveys are conducted every 2 years among high school students throughout the United States. More than 13,000 U.S. high school students participated in the 2019 national YRBS. The report includes national YRBS data and data from surveys conducted in 44 states, such as Pennsylvania Youth Survey (PAYS), Maryland Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS/YTS), New Jersey, High School YRBS, Healthy Kids Colorado Survey (HKCS), and the Montana YRBS. The national YRBS also surveys 28 large urban school districts, 3 territories, and 2 tribal governments.

Impact of COVID-19 The Monitoring the Future survey is given annually to students in 8th, 10th, and 12th grades who self-report their substance use behaviors over various time periods, such as past 30 days, past 12 months, and lifetime. The survey also documents students’ perception of harm, disapproval of use, and perceived availability of drugs. The survey results are released the same year the data are collected. From February through June 2021, the Monitoring the Future investigators collected 32,260 surveys from students enrolled across 319 public and private schools in the United States. The percentage of adolescents reporting drug use decreased significantly in 2021 as the COVID-19 pandemic endured according to 2021 Monitoring the Future survey. [8] These rates "held steady" in 2022. [9] Reported 2021 declines in the use of substances among teens include:

  • Alcohol: The percentage of students who reported using alcohol within the past year decreased significantly for 10th and 12th grade students and remained stable for eighth-graders.
    • 8th graders: 17.2% reported using alcohol in the past year in 2021, remaining steady compared to 20.5% in 2020 (not a statistically significant decrease)
    • 10th graders: 28.5% reported using alcohol in the past year in 2021, a statistically significant decrease from 40.7% in 2020
    • 12th graders: 46.5% reported using alcohol in the past year in 2021, a statistically significant decrease from 55.3% in 2020
  • Marijuana: The percentage of students who reported using marijuana (in all forms, including smoking and vaping) within the past year decreased significantly for eighth, 10th, and 12th grade students.
    • 8th graders: 7.1% reported using marijuana in the past year in 2021, compared to 11.4% in 2020
    • 10th graders: 17.3% reported using marijuana in the past year in 2021, compared to 28.0% in 2020
    • 12th graders: 30.5% reported using marijuana in the past year in 2021, compared to 35.2% in 2020
  • Vaping nicotine: Vaping continues to be the predominant method of nicotine consumption among young people, though the percentage of students who reported vaping nicotine within the past year decreased significantly for eighth, 10th, and 12th grade students.
    • Eighth graders: 12.1% reported vaping nicotine in the past year in 2021, compared to 16.6% in 2020
    • 10th graders: 19.5% reported vaping nicotine in the past year in 2021, compared to 30.7% in 2020
    • 12th graders: 26.6% reported vaping nicotine in the past year in 2021, compared to 34.5% in 2020
  • Any illicit drug, other than marijuana: The percentage of students who reported using any illicit drug (other than marijuana) within the past year decreased significantly for eighth, 10th, and 12th grade students.
    • 8th graders: 4.6% reported using any illicit drug (other than marijuana) in the past year in 2021, compared to 7.7% in 2020
    • 10th graders: 5.1% reported using any illicit drug (other than marijuana) in the past year in 2021, compared to 8.6% in 2020
    • 12th graders: 7.2% reported using any illicit drug (other than marijuana) in the past year in 2021, compared to 11.4% in 2020
    • Significant declines in use were also reported across a wide range of drugs for many of the age cohorts, including for cocaine, hallucinogens, and non-medical use of amphetamines, tranquilizers, and prescription opioids.

“In addition to looking at these significant one-year declines in substance use among young people, the real benefit of the Monitoring the Future survey is our unique ability to track changes over time, and over the course of history,” said Richard A. Miech, Ph.D., team lead of the Monitoring the Future study at the University of Michigan. “We knew that this year’s data would illuminate how the COVID-19 pandemic may have impacted substance use among young people, and in the coming years, we will find out whether those impacts are long-lasting as we continue tracking the drug use patterns of these unique cohorts of adolescents.”

“We have never seen such dramatic decreases in drug use among teens in just a one-year period. These data are unprecedented and highlight one unexpected potential consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic, which caused seismic shifts in the day-to-day lives of adolescents,” said Nora Volkow, M.D., NIDA director. “Moving forward, it will be crucial to identify the pivotal elements of this past year that contributed to decreased drug use – whether related to drug availability, family involvement, differences in peer pressure, or other factors – and harness them to inform future prevention efforts.”

Cost-Benefit of Evidence-Based Prevention. Research has shown that preventing drug abuse and other problem behaviors can produce benefits for communities that outweigh the monetary costs. The analysis of the return on investment of evidence-based prevention programs is part of a series of reports prepared by researchers at the Washington State Institute for Public Policy. Together, these reports consistently show that effective prevention programs not only work but can produce dramatic savings: [10]

  • Botvin LifeSkills Training (LST) program produced a $50 benefit for every $1 invested in terms of reduced corrections costs, welfare, social services, drug and mental health treatment, and increased employment and tax revenue. LST had the highest return on investment of all substance abuse prevention curricula studied.
  • The Strengthening Families Program: For Parents and Youth 10–14 (SFP 10–14) also produced net benefits in preventing adult cases of alcohol abuse. For every dollar spent, a $10 benefit was measured as a result of the SFP 10–14 program.
  • Guiding Good Choices (GGC) yielded a $6 benefit.
  • The Skills, Opportunity, And Recognition (SOAR) program had a benefit-to-cost ratio of $4.25 for every dollar spent.

Impactful Federal, State, and Local Policies

National Programs

In general, all prevention policies and selected programs are designed and implemented to reduce risk factors while also harnessing the buffering effects of protective factors. The specific approaches taken to drug prevention are quite varied in states across the county due to the autonomy granted to individual states and schools on the topic. However, all schools in the United States are charged with complying with National Academic Standards, Common Core Standards, and State Standards for Health Education when selecting a drug prevention program/curriculum.

Dr. Rahul Gupta, Director of the White House Office of National Drug Control Policy has stated that “the Biden-Harris Administration is committed to using data and evidence to guide our prevention efforts so it is important to identify all the factors that may have led to this decrease in substance use to better inform prevention strategies moving forward. The Administration is investing historic levels of funding for evidence-based prevention programs because delaying substance use until after adolescence significantly reduces the likelihood of developing a substance use disorder.”

SAMHSA has directed billions of dollars to states through block grants and other programs such as the State Opioid Response. SAMHSA maintains information on laws and regulations pertaining to substance abuse and mental health services, programs, and related topics. A few examples of relevant legislation and funding follow: [11]

  • Safe and Drug-Free Schools and Communities Act (SDFSCA) is Title IV of the "Improving America's Schools Act of 1994” which was a reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA). Programs authorized under this legislation provide financial assistance for state and local drug and violence prevention activities in elementary and secondary schools and institutions of higher education. Activities may be carried out by state and local educational agencies and by other public and private nonprofit organizations. [12]
  • Education Department General Administrative Regulations (EDGAR) Part 86 has particular import for all institutions of higher education (IHEs) that receive federal funding. These regulations were established as part of the 1990 Drug and Alcohol Abuse Prevention Act. [13]
  • Comprehensive Addiction Recovery Act in 2016 and the SUPPORT for Patients and Communities Act in 2018 addresses opioid misuse, addiction, and overdose deaths through a variety of initiatives in prevention, treatment, harm reduction, and recovery support.
  • In 2021, amid considerable increases in substance use during the COVID-19 pandemic, funding to address opioid and other substance use and addiction was included in several COVID-19-relief packages. [14]

Training resources and information regarding best practices is available through the Department of Education. The Office of Safe and Healthy Students (formerly OSDFS) administers, coordinates, and recommends policy for improving the quality and excellence of programs and activities which are designed to: [15]

  • Provide financial assistance for drug and violence prevention activities and activities that promote the health and wellbeing of students in elementary and secondary schools, and institutions of higher education. Activities may be carried out by state and local educational agencies and by other public and private nonprofit organizations.
  • Participate in the formulation and development of ED program policy and legislative proposals and in overall Administration policies related to violence and drug prevention.
  • Participate in interagency committees, groups, and partnerships related to drug and violence prevention, coordinating with other federal agencies on issues related to comprehensive school health, and advising the Secretary of Education on the formulation of comprehensive school health education policy.
  • Participate with other federal agencies in the development of a national research agenda for drug and violence prevention.
  • Administer the Department's programs relating to character and civics education.

State Programs

Some states have prevention laws in place that date back to the 1970s. Two recent examples of statewide policies include:

  • The Start Talking Maryland Act of 2017. The Code of Maryland Regulations (COMAR) 13A.04.18: Programs in Comprehensive Health Education training standard, Using a Skills-Based Approach to Substance Abuse Prevention Education.
  • Colorado HB21-1276 - Prevention of Substance Use Disorders was signed into law in 2021. Section 18 has a focus on the establishment of a Prevention Collaborative.

Available Tools and Resources

SAMHSA:

  • SAMHSA Evidence-Based Resource Center [16]
  • SAMHSA Focus on Prevention/Strategies and Programs to Prevent Substance Use[17]
  • "Student Assistance Guide: A Guide for School Administrators" outlines how to build effective and evidence-based substance use prevention/early-intervention/treatment programs in the school setting.[18]

SAFE Project:

  • SAFE Choices is a program within SAFE Project that focuses on fostering resiliency in youth development through collaborative and diversified approaches that reduce risk of substance addiction and mental health challenges while empowering SAFE Choices in all stages of youth development.[19]
  • See the wiki titled "Empower Parents" for more detailed information on how parents can discuss the adverse effects of substance use, misuse, and abuse with their children in an effective and compassionate manner. [20]

Searchable online registries of evidence-based prevention programs:

  • Blueprints for Healthy Youth Development at the University of Colorado, Boulder [21]
  • California Evidence-Based Clearinghouse for Child Welfare[22]
  • Coalition for Evidence-Based Policy [23]
  • Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning Curricula [24]
  • Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Model Programs Guide [25]
  • Promising Practice Network [26]
  • PTTC Network Guide to Online Registries for Substance Misuse Prevention Evidence-based Programs and Practices [27]
  • Social Programs That Work [28]
  • Results First Clearinghouse [29]
  • Washington State Health Care Authority, Division of Behavioral Health and Recovery – the Athena Forum [30]
  • What Works Clearinghouse [31]

For more information on prevention programs and frameworks:

  • CDC Framework for Thinking about Evidence [32]
  • NIDA Preventing Drug Use among Children and Adolescents [33]

Helpful resources and guides:

  • The Network for Public Health Law "Policies in Schools to Reduce Overdose and Other Drug-related Harm" Webinar explores substance abuse policy issues in schools.[34]
  • The Washington State Institute on public policy (WSIPP) has information on cost-benefit for public health and drug prevention programs. [35]
  • Washington State Health Care Authority, Division of Behavioral Health and Recovery – the Athena Forum [36]
  • The National Institute on Drug Abuse [37]
  • Suicide Prevention Resource Center: Mental Health Promotion and Suicide Prevention for LGBTQIA2S+ Youth a Resource guide for Professionals, Families and Communities [38]

Other Relevant Data Sources:

  • National Center for Drug Abuse Statistics [39]
  • National Survey on Drug Use and Health [40]
  • National Youth Tobacco Survey [41]

Promising Practices

SPORT Prevention Plus Wellness: A single-session screening and brief intervention that integrates substance use prevention with the promotion of physical activity and healthy behaviors for youth.[42]

Positive Prevention Plus: A comprehensive school-based sexual health education and teen pregnancy prevention curriculum.[43]

Olweus Bullying Prevention Program: Includes school-wide, classroom, individual, and community strategies.[44]

Media Detective: Increasing media literacy is a promising approach to school-based substance abuse intervention. Beneficial outcomes include:[45]

  • Increased media skepticism
  • Increased perceived efficiency in resisting pro-drug media messages
  • Greater ability to make counter-arguments to beer advertisements
  • Increased belief that smoking and drinking are "wrong"
  • Reduced middle school boys' intentions to use alcohol or tobacco in the future
  • Reduced opioid misuse

SAFIR -- Substance Abuse Free Indian River[46] This Drug Free Coalition in Vero Beach, Florida, has been implementing several promising programs in schools and working with community partners. “We are very proud of our initiatives: SAFIR Rx, Talk, They Hear You, No One’s House and Friday Night Done Right, but we are particularly excited about Know the Law, which is conducted by law enforcement officers (LEOs) in the classroom,” said Robin Dapp, Executive Director. “It helps bring students and officers together.” At the beginning of each school year, school resource officers provide the Know the Law classes to incoming high school freshmen. The program is designed to make our local youth and young adults aware of the laws and the consequences of breaking the law. The training covers the common offenses committed by youth on a regular basis. Civil Citation is a significant environmental strategy that has been embraced by local law enforcement. SAFIR has supported the delivery of a comprehensive prevention strategy for middle school youth. All middle schools in the community receive Botvin’s LifeSkills Training program, beginning in 6th grade through 8th grade. The curriculum is delivered by the Substance Awareness Center, and consists of a total of 30 lessons.

Boy Scouts & Girl Scouts Each of these groups participates in the DEA Red Ribbon Patch Program[47]. This program empowers young people to create, embrace and strengthen their drug free belief. The Girl Scout Research Institute has aligned its three sets of leadership outcomes (Discover, Connect, and Take Action) to the Developmental Asset framework that is promoted by the Search Institute. [48]

Sources

  1. ↑ Griffin KW, Botvin GJ. Evidence-based interventions for preventing substance use disorders in adolescents. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 2010;19:505–26. CrossRefexternal icon PubMedexternal iconFaggiano F, Minozzi S, Versino E, Buscemi D. Universal school-based prevention for illicit drug use. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014;12:CD003020. CrossRefexternal icon PubMedexternal icon
  2. ↑ Murray NG, Low BJ, Hollis C, Cross AW, Davis SM. Coordinated school health programs and academic achievement: A systematic review of the literature. J Sch Health 2007;77:589-600
  3. ↑ https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/protective/school_connectedness.htm
  4. ↑ https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/data/yrbs/pdf/YRBSDataSummaryTrendsReport2019-508.pdf
  5. ↑ Newcomb MD, Locke T. Health, social, and psychological consequences of drug use and abuse. In: Sloboda Z, editor. Epidemiology of drug abuse. Springer; New York: 2005. pp. 45–59.
  6. ↑ U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), Office of the Surgeon General, Facing Addiction in America: The Surgeon General’s Report on Alcohol, Drugs, and Health. Washington, DC: HHS, November 2016
  7. ↑ https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/data/yrbs/feature/index.htm
  8. ↑ https://www.drugabuse.gov/drug-topics/trends-statistics/monitoring-future
  9. ↑ https://nida.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/2022/12/most-reported-substance-use-among-adolescents-held-steady-in-2022
  10. ↑ Lee, S., Aos, S., Drake, E., Pennucci, A., Miller, M. & Anderson, L. (2013). Return on investment: Evidence-based options to improve statewide outcomes. October 2013 (Printed on 3-20-14). Olympia: Washington State Institute for Public Policy
  11. ↑ https://www.samhsa.gov/about-us/who-we-are/laws-regulations
  12. ↑ https://ojjdp.ojp.gov/sites/g/files/xyckuh176/files/pubs/gun_violence/sect08-i.html
  13. ↑ https://safesupportivelearning.ed.gov/sites/default/files/hec/product/dfscr.pdf
  14. ↑ https://www.healthaffairs.org/do/10.1377/forefront.20210607.239986/full/
  15. ↑ https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/oese/oshs/aboutus.html
  16. ↑ https://www.samhsa.gov/resource-search/ebp#collapse-samhsa_uswds_base_resourcecenter
  17. ↑ https://store.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/d7/priv/sma10-4120.pdf
  18. ↑ https://store.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/tthy-student-assistance-guide-pep19-03-01-001.pdf
  19. ↑ https://www.safeproject.us/safe-choices/
  20. ↑ https://www.yoursafesolutions.us/wiki/Empower_Parents
  21. ↑ https://www.blueprintsprograms.org/program-search/
  22. ↑ https://www.cebc4cw.org/search/by-program-name/
  23. ↑ http://coalition4evidence.org
  24. ↑ https://pg.casel.org/
  25. ↑ https://www.ojjdp.gov/mpg/
  26. ↑ https://promisingpractices.net/programs.asp
  27. ↑ https://pttcnetwork.org/centers/pacific-southwest-pttc/product/guide-online-registries-substance-misuse-prevention-evidence
  28. ↑ https://evidencebasedprograms.org/
  29. ↑ https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/data-visualizations/2015/results-first-clearinghouse-database
  30. ↑ https://theathenaforum.org/best_practices_toolkit
  31. ↑ https://www.ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/
  32. ↑ https://www.hidta.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/CDC-Understanding-Evidence.pdf
  33. ↑ https://www.hidta.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/NIDA-Prevention-Program-Principles.pdf
  34. ↑ https://www.networkforphl.org/resources/policies-in-schools-to-reduce-overdose-and-other-drug-related-harm/
  35. ↑ https://www.wsipp.wa.gov/BenefitCost?topicId=9
  36. ↑ https://theathenaforum.org/best_practices_toolkit
  37. ↑ https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugs-brains-behavior-science-addiction/preventing-drug-misuse-addiction-best-strategy
  38. ↑ https://sprc.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/LGBTQIA2S-Resource-Guide.pdf
  39. ↑ https://drugabusestatistics.org/teen-drug-use/
  40. ↑ https://nsduhweb.rti.org/respweb/homepage.cfm
  41. ↑ https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/surveys/nyts/index.htm
  42. ↑ https://www.blueprintsprograms.org/programs/477999999/sport-prevention-plus-wellness/#:~:text=SPORT%20Prevention%20Plus%20Wellness%20is%20a%20health%20promotion,counterproductive%20to%20achieving%20positive%20image%20and%20behavior%20goals.
  43. ↑ https://positivepreventionplus.com/curriculum-downloads/
  44. ↑ https://olweus.sites.clemson.edu/
  45. ↑ http://mediadetectiveprograms.com/media-literacys-role-in-prevention/
  46. ↑ https://safirc.org/
  47. ↑ https://www.getsmartaboutdrugs.gov/get-involved/red-ribbon-week-patch-program
  48. ↑ https://www.girlscouts.org/content/dam/girlscouts-gsusa/forms-and-documents/about-girl-scouts/research/gsle_asset_map_2012.pdf
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